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In this study the interactive method, shortly introduced above, is employed in order to identify the external and internal resources of Bayars leadership and assess the weight of these resources. The interactive methodology obliges each study to come up with its own categories of external and internal resources as it does not provide a set of fixed categories for the study of leaders.

General conclusions without reference to case studies are considered artificial Cole, a: because each case study is likely to bear its own categories of external and internal resources. The interactive method also does not give out any guidelines on how to establish whether external or internal resources have been more influential on the leader under focus. Each study undertaken with this methodology has to develop its own framework on this question as well.

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For instance, Elgie concludes that for the liberal democratic systems he studiedpolitical context, i. Nevertheless, he still highlights the importance of leaders themselves, and arrives at the conclusion that leaders do make a difference. Gaffney, in his analysis of French presidents sinceindicates that the fifth Republic paved the way for a strong presidency.

The political context drew the limits for the exercise of leadership; however according to him, personal resources and political skills of the leaders have been central to the direction and form of the Republic since Gaffney, For instance in his study of Sadabat pakti balkan ant anti aging Mitterrand, Cole arrives at the conclusion that Mitterrands personal charisma and skills shaped his presidency, but even then it is arguable to what extent Mitterrand top 5 anti aging termék the political circumstances - he owed a considerable 10 share of his success to developments beyond his control such as the economic and the international restraints that called for innovative leadership solutions Cole, a: For the Argentinean case, the authors suggest that the political context determined by the presidential system calls for a strong leadership trait which in turn sadabat pakti balkan ant anti aging the importance of personal resources Llanos and Margheritis, Although internal resources are more prominent in their discussion, the importance of the political context is also acknowledged.

In the current dissertation, an original framework of external and internal resources for the study of Bayars leadership will be introduced and the discussion on the weight of these resources will depend on this framework. Throughout this dissertation, primary and secondary resources will be used for the analysis of Bayars leadership. Primary resources include the volumes Bayar himself wrote on a number of issues ranging from his relationship with Prime Minister Adnan Menderes to his admiration for Mustafa Kemal Atatrk and his involvement in the Turkish War of Independence.

Bayars speeches, delivered on several different occasions, such as election campaigns, were professionally compiled and these will also be used as primary resources in this dissertation. The parliamentary proceedings in are also among the primary resources that were surveyed.

Primary sources provide an important contribution especially for the analysis of Bayars internal leadership resources.

Celal Bayar and Political Leadership, 1937-1960

Nevertheless, they may also include valuable insights into certain external resources. Secondary resources used for this dissertation come in a number of categories.

The first category is the press. Newspapers, monthly and weekly magazines listed in detail at the end of this dissertation have been surveyed for the years in the archives of the Istanbul-based History Foundation of 11 Turkey Trk Tarih Vakf and of the Ankara-based National Library Milli Ktphane. This institution has been compiling news printed in the main newspapers monthly since and opened its resources to public on its website.

The second category consists of memoirs that refer to Bayar extensively and are written by certain important figures of the period under study. The author was a member of the DP governments and a close associate of Celal Bayar. Burak was a member of Parliament from Erzurum, minister for customs in and minister for education from to Haldun Derin's ankaya zel Kalemini Anmsarken: Remembering the Private Secretariat of President at ankaya: is another example.

Derin spent the years from to first with nn and then with Bayar as presidents. Although most of the anecdotes are from the years Sadabat pakti balkan ant anti aging worked for President nn, he also shared his observations about Bayar. Metin Tokers volumes Demokrasimizin smet Paal Yllar Our Democracy during smet Pasha Timesespecially volumes from one to five consecutively, that explore the years are among resources based on memoirs.

Turhan Dilligils Bayar-nn Yaknlamas The Rapprochement between Bayar and nn is an account of the reconciliation between Bayar and nn brought about by the author who was a journalist close to the DP and a member of the Parliament from the AP in Memoirs provide useful insights both for Bayars internal and to some extent external leadership resources. Yet here it should also be acknowledged that memoirs may often be biased in favor of or against Bayar. To avoid any mistakes that can result from using memoirs without caution, a critical selection is pursued: relying on the judgmental or excessively favorable parts of the memoirs on Bayar as the main resource for information is avoided.

Third, a number of interviews were conducted with certain acquaintances of Bayar who worked with him or were close to him through family ties.

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Another close acquaintance of Bayar who prefers to remain anonymous was also interviewed. These interviews have been useful especially for their contribution to the analysis of Bayars internal leadership resources. Fourth, the political science literature on the DP period was extensively used, mainly for the analysis of the external resources in Fifth, certain resources mentioned above in the literature review will also be used. In that respect studies by Bozda and Kutay should be repeated here.

Neither of these authors are scholars and their writings on Bayar are often biased in favor of him. Neverthless both authors had frequent access to Bayar and they were able to interview him for their studies several times.

Thus, Bozdas and Kutays books will also be used throughout this dissertation. However these books will be relied upon only for biographical details about Bayars life and Bayars own statements that come out throughout the text. In the second chapter, first the interactive approach employed throughout this dissertation is detailed.

Second, an account of the political context in from the perspective of certain issues such as the nature of the political regime, the role of the armed forces in political affairs, international affairs and the economic background is provided.

In this dissertation these are referred to as non- institutional resources of Bayars leadership. The timeframe for this analysis in Chapter II is the period from to Although Bayar did not take any executive leadership position inthis period is also included in the political context analysis because political history had an important impact on the formation of the political context that 15 Bayar operated in during Besides, it would be unreliable to provide two separate analyses of the political context in and and ignore the interim phase, because political issues have a great deal of continuity.

Matters taken up in this chapter do not constitute a comprehensive account of that period, neither are they confined to the political circumstances that Bayar had been a part of.

These topics were preferred because they are the major political issues that dominated the years from to This will be done first with regard to his life experience, earned through certain key moments that he himself defined as crucial.

These sadabat pakti balkan ant anti aging were influential on the way that his politics evolved later. For instance, his experience as a young banker had an impact on his later role as sadabat pakti balkan ant anti aging of the macro-economic planners.

Likewise the TC experience endowed him with a specific understanding of politics and the Turkish War of Independence further contributed to establish him as a Turkish nationalist. Second, Bayars understanding of certain major political concepts, such as democracy and nationalism will be clarified in this chapter.

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In Chapter IV, Bayars role as prime minister in will be taken up. For this purpose, first the background for the prime minister will be explored. The prime ministers powers and authority according to the Constitution will be taken up and a short assessment of the office of prime minister until Bayars term will be provided. Second, in this chapter it will be shown how Bayar perceived his position in In order to conduct this analysis, Bayars acts as prime minister and his role in the political circumstances 16 will be discussed.

Among other matters, Bayars relations with the President of the Republic Mustafa Kemal Atatrk will also be examined in this chapter. In Chapter V, Bayars presidency in will be taken up.

Similar to the categorization in the Chapter IV, first the authority and powers of the president under the Constitution will be explored and an assessment of the presidents position since the establishment of the Republic will be presented.

Second, Bayars perception of this office in will be outlined through an analysis of his actions as president. Matters such as his role in the repression of the opposition, restriction of the freedom of the press, ascending political tension and foreign policy will be explored. His relations with Prime Minister Adnan Menderes and the head of the main opposition party smet nn will also be considered in this sadabat pakti balkan ant anti aging.

In the concluding chapter, first the primary findings of the previous chapters will be summarized and evaluated. Second, the extent to which external as opposed to internal resources influenced Bayars leadership will be analyzed.

Third, the question what kind of a leader profile Bayar provides will be put into context and an answer will be provided. Fourth, the interactive approach will be reconsidered according to the findings of this dissertation on Bayars leadership. Last, follow-up questions for further studies will be introduced. Interactive Approach in the Study of Leadership This study is concerned with executive political leadership here onwards leadership in the Turkish context; which according to the constitutions ofand consists of the president and the government.

Executive leadership is only one form of political leadership as all political leaders are not necessarily executive office holders Helms, 3. Adopting this definition in the sadabat pakti balkan ant anti aging study is useful firstly because it does not indulge in the extensive discussions of what political leadership is. This 4 Sadabat pakti balkan ant anti aging mentions thousands of competing definitions of leadership Elgie, Various definitions have been grouped under nine categories and some of these categories overlap and repeat each other Blondel, In another resource, definitions are mentioned Bass, Under the academic discipline of political science, individual leaders are often studied with regard to the resources of political leadership.

Resources of leadership have been categorized under two titles: external and internal. This is an essential categorization because leaders act against the backgrounds set by the political environment, i. External and internal resources of leadership are not static or predetermined Elgie, 8; Helms, Leaders change their political environment and they themselves change due to their interaction with the political environment.

Thus although external factors may constrain the leaders in many ways and partially determine the political issues to be addressed by them, leaders are not hostages to their environment Helms, This perspective, which takes into account external and internal resources of leadership is referred to as the interactive approach Elgie, 8; Helms, Although executive leadership positions and political institutions are different in presidential and parliamentary 19 systems, this approach has been embraced by scholars who work on either of these different political systems.

The proper definitions of internal and external resources on the exercise of leadership change according to the leader, the country and the period studied. None of the contemporary scholars working on the questions of leadership have attempted to provide a universal scheme of external and internal resources that can be applied to the study of leaders.

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It has been noted that it would be artificial sadabat pakti balkan ant anti aging discriminate in an abstract manner between personal characteristics, positional context and environmental constraints without reference to specific cases Cole, a: Each leadership study that uses the interactive method has to identify the external and internal resources that have an impact on the leader under focus.

Thus, this study also does not depend on a predetermined categorization of internal and external resources. However, below, a framework to study Bayars leadership from the perspective of the interactive approach is introduced. This methodological approach is applied throughout the dissertation. This framework is inspired by previous studies on several leaders and the theoretical contributions of scholars. These contributions have been selectively incorporated taking into account Turkeys political context inas well as Celal 5 For the employment of this approach in parliamentary systems see Cole, a; Cole, b and Gaffney, For the presidential interpretation, see Barber, and Llano and Margheritis, Bayars opel ampera alkalom svájci anti aging. This framework should not sadabat pakti balkan ant anti aging interpreted as an ideal guide to study other Turkish leaders.

For instance, the concept of structure has been employed to refer to the factors, which do not derive from leaders themselves. Thus, other conceptualizations such as leadership environment Elgie,context Hargrove,environment Blondel, 25 and environmental constraints Moskop, ; Cole, a: were developed to expand the scope of the factors that are studied as part of the external resources of leadership.

Here, in order to provide a clear expression for many different categories introduced to the study of Bayars leadership, the umbrella sadabat pakti balkan ant anti aging of external resources was preferred.

The external resources that are influential in the exercise of leadership can be broadly defined as the wider historical context, including ideas, politics and social currents within which leaders operate and within which they are subsumed Hargrove, This formulation, embodies both institutional aspects of leadership such as the nature of the executive offices as dictated by the constitution, and non- 6 For instance see Jones, 4. External resources are important for leaders in a few different ways.

Firstly, they often determine the limits of the leaders agenda and political goals.

For instance, the different combination of external resources in Egypt and Germany present dramatically different agendas for executive leaders in these countries respectively. While the German leaders, inare occupied with the European Unions fiscal crisis or further development of a green economy in their country, Egyptian leaders are faced with the difficulties of institution-building.

Thus, Egyptian leaders are less likely, at this moment, to work on developing green development schemes whereas German leaders are not concerned with the installment of basic democratic institutions. Secondly, external resources limit a leaders activities and legally frame the scope for their activities.

Thus the most powerful leaders will be likely to be found in political systems where the laws give them the most powers. However, this observation only applies to the contexts where the political regime is regulated through laws and the rule of law is respected. A discussion of the external resources of leadership is vital for the analyses of leaders.

However studies that overemphasize these resources underestimate the leaders impact on the political environment Imbroscio, 47 and fail to analyze the constraints on sephora best anti aging serum political context Cole, a In this study, this one-dimensional focus was 22 avoided by including a chapter on the internal resources of Bayars leadership during On the other hand, the impact of sadabat pakti balkan ant anti aging resources was acknowledged and an extensive analysis of these factors was included for the period from to Below the channels through which external resources of leadership are operationalized are described.

Thus, they are given a great deal of attention in this study. Institutions define the rules of the political game for leaders in office Elgie, The characteristics of the institutions studied depend largely on the political systems under focus.

Different political systems provide similar executive positions with different powers and responsibilities. Yet in leadership studies irrespective of different characteristics of political systems and regimes, the institutional dimension is often reverzív anti aging szérum up in a study of following categories.